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Item Power Consumption Analysis of a 5G NR Base Transceiver Station Using a Custom Measurement Setup(2025-07) Ebrahim, Rozeena; Vilakazi, Mlamuli C; Mabunda, Ntsako D; Makaleng, Koketso F; Sikrenya, Siyanda KS; Lysko, Albert A; Mfupe, Luzango PAs Fifth Generation (5G) and future mobile networks continue to expand, understanding the power consumption of the base transceiver station (BTS) is necessary for improving the energy efficiency of the Radio Access Network (RAN). The power consumption of the BTS is influenced by factors such as its operating mode, transmission power and traffic levels. This work has explored the power consumption of an outdoor commercial 5G New Radio (NR) BTS using an inexpensive and custom-built power measurement setup. Indoor testing was done at a reduced transmit power level to analyse the power consumption under different operation modes. The measurements presented a clear correlation between activity levels and energy usage. Insights have been provided into the power consumption requirements of outdoor BTSs compared to 5G setups deployed on an in-house, indoor mobile network testbed, including the trade-off between energy efficiency and operational stability. Further, these findings have highlighted areas for future research, such as the impact of deployment environments, transmit power levels and the number of connected devices on energy efficiency. Understanding these factors is considered essential for designing, building and deploying more sustainable mobile networks for the future.Item A satellite-based decision support service for the marine fisheries and aquaculture industry of southern Africa(2025-09) Smith, Marié E; Molapo, Nkadimeng R; Ngulube, Mabuela; Sibolla, Bolelang, H; Vhengani, Lufuno MMarine Aquaculture in South Africa includes abalone, mussels, oysters, and finfish. Depending on the cultured organisms these could include land-based pump-ashore operations in-water cages or rafts. Each method of operation has different environmental risk.Item Future trends in AI for cybersecurity and digital forensics: A systematic literature survey(2025-06) Nelufule, Nthatheni NThe Fourth Industrial Revolution has brought many opportunities, including the integration of artificial intelligence technologies into cybersecurity and digital forensics. These integrations represent a transformative change in how organizations protect their digital assets and investigate their cybersecurity incidents. As cyber threats become increasingly sophisticated, traditional cybersecurity measures often fail, necessitating the adoption of advanced AIdriven solutions. This paper presents a systematic literature survey that explored future trends in artificial intelligence applications in these critical domains, focusing on their potential to improve threat detection, automate incident response, and improve the efficiency of forensic investigations. The survey has identified some key challenges associated with the deployment of Artificial Intelligence technologies, including ethical considerations, data privacy issues, and the complexities of integration into existing systems. The findings from this survey paper have revealed a growing reliance on artificial intelligence for real-time threat detection and response, highlighting its effectiveness in identifying anomalies and predicting potential breaches before they escalate into significant incidents.Item Competency-based training for mine emergency response(2025-06) Lange, Pieter; Bergh, Adriaan V; Pelders, Jodi L; Khan, SumayaMine workers are exposed to hazards that can cause injuries or fatalities, including fires, underground explosions, irrespirable, falls of ground and mobile machinery. Emergency preparedness is important for improved safety outcomes and includes the deployment of self-contained self-rescuer (SCSR devices, effective escape routes, and adequately located refuge bays. The need has been identified for improved training solutions or mine worker escape situations, which should provide some exposure to the stressors that would be experienced. The CSIR mining Cluster has developed innovative multimodal competency-based training modules to improve the emergency response of mine employess. The modules include interactive e-learning, virtual reality training, SCSR donning and breathing simulation, and competency-based assessments. A pilot study was successfully completed with participation from a major coal mining operation. The competency-based approach improves the overall efficiency of the training and is especially well-suited to training for high-consequence, low-frequency scenarios.Item Understanding the risk: Mapping deepfake cyberattacks to a temporal attack model(2025-07) Pieterse, HeloiseThe advancement of artificial intelligence (AI) technologies has become a trending topic in the cybersecurity domain. These technologies, however, present cybersecurity with a double-edged sword as AI offers enhanced threat detection and protection, but also enables cybercriminals to craft sophisticated cyberattacks. Deepfakes, which are a form of digitally manipulated synthesised media created using deep learning techniques, have garnered widespread attention due to the use of deepfakes in cyberattacks to cause influence, spread disinformation, or conduct fraudulent activities. While extensive research efforts have been undertaken to develop defences against deepfakes, the solutions are technical and not easily accessible. Innovative strategies are required to equip personnel from government, academia, and the business sector with the fundamental knowledge to detect and defend against cyberattacks employing deepfake technology. This paper evaluates the most significant events involving deepfakes since the emergence of the technology in November 2017. Key trends and characteristics are identified and mapped to a temporal attack model to separate the different stages of a cyberattack involving deepfakes. The outcome is a Deepfake Attack Framework that offers valuable insights essential to understanding the risks associated with deepfakes. The Deepfake Attack Framework presents a theoretical solution that can be applied practically to minimise risk and enable personnel to be better prepared to defend against deepfake-driven cyberattacks.Item A case for high capacity coal trucks to reduce costs and emissions at Eskom(2021-07) De Saxe, Christopher; Van Eeden, J; Steenkamp, A; Mokone, OlwethuSouth Africa’s national power utility, Eskom, is under heavy strain to maintain an undisrupted electricity supply and contain costs, while at the same time reducing its environmental impact. In 2018/19, Eskom acquired 118 Mt of coal, at a purchase cost of approximately R 47 billion, of which around R7 billion (15%) can be attributed to the transport of coal via conveyor, rail and road. Eskom has been unable to meet its road-torail modal shift targets, and so road haulage still accounts for around 30% of coal deliveries. The “Smart Truck” or “PBS” demonstration project in South Africa has shown how an innovative approach to truck design and regulation can drastically improve the efficiency of road haulage, reducing the cost per tonne-km, while reducing emissions and improving safety. An existing Smart Truck trial in coal transport has demonstrated a 15% reduction in fuel use and associated carbon emissions per tonne-km, which translates into an approximate 6% reduction in total road transport costs. This was achieved through the introduction of innovative 74-tonne tridem interlink truck combinations, which has resulted in fewer truck trips and reduced costs for the same haulage task. At the same time, the trucks are more road friendly due to additional axles and fewer truck trips, and the trucks are designed to be inherently safer than the conventional coal interlinks currently in use. In this paper, we benchmark the costs and emissions of Eskom’s current road haulage coal supply operations in South Africa, and calculate the potential savings from migrating to 74tonne interlink PBS truck combinations. We demonstrate potential savings of R 120 million and 35 000 tonnes of CO2 per year, while removing 300 000 truck trips from the roads.Item Classification of trucks using camera data(2021-07) Mokone, Olwethu; De Saxe, ChristopherUnderstanding the precise movements of different commodities on South African roads can help in not only describing the logistics sector more accurately, but also in the planning of road infrastructure maintenance and investment. Truck combinations can be classified into several classes broadly associated with different commodity groups, including tautliners, tankers, flatbeds (general freight) and flatbed (containerised freight). Current truck classification systems in South Africa can classify trucks by number of axles and vehicle mass but are unable to determine the combination type and hence commodity group. Video data allows for truck combinations to be classified in more detail using image-based classifiers. The latest developments in deep learning algorithms have made it possible for accurate classification of vehicle types using camera data. A CCTV camera feed of a section of the N3 was provided by the South African National Roads Agency Limited (SANRAL) and was used as a case study to develop a proof-of-concept classifier for tautliner and tanker truck combinations, using a transfer learning approach and the pretrained ResNet50 classifier. The results indicate good accuracy based on relatively small datasets. Future work will focus on further optimisation and investigating the training dataset requirements in more detail.Item Accelerated Pavement Testing (APT) of a test section surfaced with an asphalt wearing coarse containing plastic waste incorporated using the ‘wet method’(2025-07) Smit, Michelle A; Rust, FC; Mturi, Goerges; Mokoena, Refiloe; Ntombela, R; Marais, HermanThe incorporation of plastic waste in road pavement materials presents a promising opportunity for sustainable infrastructure development. In South Africa, introducing any innovation requires compliance with national performance criteria and guidance from mechanistic-empirical design methods. This study evaluated the rutting resistance performance of a road pavement section surfaced with plastic waste modified asphalt (PWMA) produced via the wet method – where plastic waste is integrated into the bituminous binder before mixing. An Accelerated Pavement Testing (APT) program was adopted for the permanent deformation testing of a coarse continuously-graded asphalt wearing course modified with plastic waste. The PWMA was produced with post-consumer recycled plastic waste and also incorporated a Reactive Elastomeric Terpolymer (RET). Test sections were constructed in Gauteng, South Africa, comprising a reference asphalt (based on a standard unmodified bitumen used in South Africa) structure and a PWMA layer. Both sections were subjected to simulated traffic loading using a Heavy Vehicle Simulator (HVS) at speeds of 12km/h, varying wheel loads (40, 60 and 80 kN dual wheel load), and controlled temperatures reflective of local pavement conditions. Performance monitoring involved surface and embedded measurement tools, including Road Surface Deflectometer (RSD), Multi Depth Deflectometer (MDD), standard straight edge, thermocouples and temperature buttons. After 2.9 million equivalent standard axles (ESALs) of HVS loading, the PWMA section demonstrated enhanced rutting resistance, with an average rut depth of 7.2 mm, compared to 10.4 mm for the reference section, which reached a maximum rut of 12mm.These results align with laboratory findings, confirming that the addition of plastic waste increases the structural integrity of asphalt layers by enhancing resistance to permanent deformation. This study supports the potential for adopting PWMA in South African road infrastructure to meet national performance standards and sustainability goals.Item Application of 2D and 3D SAR backprojection techniques for intrawall and Throughwall Object Detection(2025-05) Dass, Reevelen; Nel, Willem AJ; Paine, SA radar system has been developed to image the interior structures within walls, revealing details such as conduits, piping, and other substructures. This is achieved by moving an antenna system across the wall surface to generate synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images using frequency-domain backprojection. The materials imaged included a copper pipe, a PVC pipe, a wooden beam, and a calibration target. Results showed that all targets, except for the PVC pipe, were clearly visible to the untrained eye. To enhance target isolation from the wall background, background subtraction and differential SAR (DSAR) techniques were applied, both of which effectively highlighted the targets against the wall background. Image contrast was then evaluated as a quantifiable metric of image quality, which is critical for optimising post-processing techniques such as autofocus. Finally, a 3D image of the wall’s interior was generated, demonstrating the feasibility of a SAR-based wall scanner and its potential in non-destructive inspection and security applications.Item Sticking (with) the Landing - A modern case for Knights Landing in resource-constrained environments(2025-07) Johnston, Bryan J; Crosby, Charles P; Reynolds, QG; Schopf, JM; Whalen, CJThe HPC Ecosystems Project has repurposed decommissioned tier1 HPC systems into entry-level clusters across Africa for over a decade. Stampede2 Knights Landing (KNL) systems are available for global distribution through the Texas Advanced Computing Center’s Legacy Computing Program, and to HPC Ecosystems Project partners. To ensure the novel KNL architecture is fit for purpose for sites contemplating adopting the legacy systems, this publication provides a brief performance reference guide for prospective adopters. Benchmark tests were conducted to evaluate Stampede2’s KNL processors on modern workloads to help inform prospective adoption decisions. It was concluded that the Stampede2 KNL processors remain particularly suitable for applications that benefit from good memory bandwidth, but that multi-node use is only feasible if high-performance networking is also available.Item Evaluating offline LoRaWAN for surface-level maritime communication(2025-07) Manga, Amisha; Giesler, Achmed; Govindsamy, Reesen; Mowzer, Mohammed YBThis research investigates the feasibility of using LoRaWAN (Long Range Wide Area Network) for sea surface- level maritime communication. Sea-based field experiments were conducted across False Bay, South Africa, with the intention to evaluate line-of-sight communication. A LoRaWAN gateway was configured as a private network server to process incoming messages that contain geolocation information from commer cial off-the-shelf (COTS) LoRa (Long Range) devices. Custom software was developed to extract, record and display key performance metrics such as the Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR), Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI), frequency bands and spreading factor. The devices were deployed on the sea surface and achieved a stable 2 km communication range in rough sea conditions with 2 m swells. Communication was achieved at 5 km when the devices were lifted 0.5 to 1 m above the sea surface, indicating improved performance with elevation. The results support LoRaWAN’s potential for maritime communication with applications in emergency response and defence, while highlighting the challenges and key insights for future research.Item BlockBaRT: Towards a Blockchain-based battery passport with selective disclosure of verifiable data(2025-07) Kanjere, Julian S; Ford, Merryl; Louw, Jakobus MThe market for electric vehicles (EVs) is surging as automakers move towards decarbonisation, and consumer preferences towards environmentally friendly vehicles. In addition, technological advances are making EV production and operation cheaper, and EV performance comparable with that of traditional internal combustion engines. One of the core components of an EV is the lithium-ion battery, which has a multi-stakeholder and often siloed value chain. Given the nature of the EV battery supply chain, visibility into the end-to-end lifecycle of a battery is opaque. To address this limited visibility and the automotive decarbonisation agenda, governments are introducing battery passport legislation for the collection and sharing of EV battery-related data, throughout its lifetime, among supply chain actors.Item Evaluating trust models for the IoT-enabled peer to-peer energy market(2025-07) Leotlela, B; Ledwaba, Lehlogonolo PI; Coetzee, MThe decentralised nature of peer-to-peer (P2P) energy markets creates an environment where trust is difficult to establish. Supported by Internet of Things (IoT) devices, trust and security challenges arise, due to the absence of central oversight and the risk of uncooperative participant behaviour. A comparative analysis of existing trust management models and schemes is conducted in this study comparing how they are designed to encourage cooperation and ensure reliable interactions in decentralized energy markets. Emphasis is placed on how these models integrate security mechanisms to build trust and on their computational efficiency for IoT constrained environments. The analysis highlights the trade offs between trust management and IoT device performance, identifying limitations in scalability and latency as participation scales. Results indicate that while several models effectively build trust and promote cooperation, many impose significant resource demands, underscoring the need for balance between trust assurance and operational efficiency. This work provides a comprehensive evaluation of trust mechanisms in transactive energy systems and offers insights into their practical viability in resource-constrained, decentralized environments.Item Comparative evolution of production ready programmable data plane hardware(2025-07) Mnyandu, Wandile T; Makondo, Ntshuxeko; Kobo, Hlabishi ISoftware Defined Networking (SDN) has revolutionised the architecture of the traditional network device by centralizing its control and management planes, leaving it with only the data plane for packet forwarding. While this architecture improves network programmability and management, it introduces latency and is rigid in packet processing. To address these limitations, the Programming Protocol-independent Packet Processors (P4) language allows for direct programming of the data plane, enabling the creation of custom packet processing pipelines (PPP) using programmable hardware like ASICs and FPGAs. This paper provides a comprehensive review and comparative analysis of production-ready P4 solutions and outlines the key milestones in the development of programmable data planes as research publications typically cover their origins in relation to SDN while they predate it. Furthermore, we discuss their practical applications and emerging trends in programmable data plane hardware. The findings aim to guide researchers and practitioners in evaluating suitable P4-enabled technologies for diverse network environments.Item Hyper-Connected: Information security education for today's children(2025-06) Mukondeleli, Elekanyani; Latakgomo, Molebogeng; Mahlasela, Oyena N; Siphambili, NokuthabaThe digital landscape has become an integral part of modern childhood. While technology offers a wealth of educational and social opportunities, it also presents a growing number of information security threats that children are often ill-prepared to handle. This research explores the critical need for information security education specifically tailored to the online habits and vulnerabilities of today’s hyperconnected children. The literature review was conducted to assess the vulnerabilities faced by children. Therefore, this study proposed an information security framework to equip children with the knowledge and skills necessary to navigate the online world safely and responsibly. The framework comprises five components: education, awareness and training, technology and tools, community support network, policies and regulations, and behavioural strategy. The information security framework can be applied as a tool in protecting children from falling victim to online threats.Item An Investigation into secure, remote, firmware updating mechanisms for peer-to-peer transactive microgrids(2025-07) Smith, Andrew C; Ledwaba, Lehlogonolo PRenewable energy-based microgrid deployments are being identified as potential solutions for faster electrification in developing countries. IoT-enabled microgrids solve the physical infrastructure limitations of connecting communities that are geographically distant from main grid energy supply networks and reduce the added demand placed on the already grid. However, with the deployment of long-term, long-lived IoT technologies, a need for appropriate maintenance and updating strategies is introduced to ensure that the network’s security, integrity, and availability is maintained. Hardware would need to access up-to-date features and patches deployed within newer f irmware iterations without significant interaction and effort from the end user. This work aims to identify, evaluate, and recommend appropriate strategies and solutions for remote IoT firmware updating to be used within transactive microgrid deployments. The solutions considered should be able to maintain the security and integrity of the firmware file during distribution and be able to tolerate the unpredictability of transmission utilizing various communications networks and differing levels of network coverage. The investigation compares and analyses various firmware updating methodologies for lightweight operation, capability of minimising the monetary cost of firmware updating to the end user, and coverage of firmware updating attack vectors As part of future work, the identified firmware mechanisms shall be implemented within a demonstrable microgrid network simulation to assess the performance and latency impacts introduced on microgrid transactions and IoT network processes.Item Towards a comprehensive cybersecurity information sharing framework(2025) Manari, Unarine J; Ngobeni, Sipho J; Letshwenyo, Mpho; Baruni, Kedimotse P; Ndhlovu, Nomalisa; Senamela, PertuniaIn today's digital age, cybersecurity has become a critical concern for nations around the world. With South Africa facing a significant cybersecurity challenge, ranking as the most targeted country on the African continent. The number and sophistication of cyber-attacks such as ransomware attacks, data breaches, phishing and pharming attacks have been steadily rising in recent years with the public sector and financial institutions being highly prone to these attacks. As cyber threats grow in sophistication and frequency, the need for robust defences and proactive measures is of high importance. Information sharing helps organizations and governments to analyse and understand existing cyber-attack trends and use the intelligence gathered to prevent future cyber-attacks, this helps to improve their overall security posture. It is evident from several scholars that organizations that share cybersecurity information have a high probability of reducing cyberattacks within their environments. Most scholars agrees that, generally, information sharing, and collaboration may greatly reduce cybersecurity risk while ensuring resilience. But confusion and controversy remain around the following particulars such as: Who should share information? What should be shared? When should it be shared? What is the quality and utility of what is shared? How should it be shared? Why is it being shared? What can be done with the information? This paper therefore seeks to analyse the existing Cybersecurity information sharing frameworks, highlight the gaps and propose a comprehensive framework. Firstly, the paper formulates metrics that are used to evaluate the various identified frameworks, then compare and contract them. We then formulate a comprehensive information sharing framework building from the identified gaps. The proposed framework will then be adopted and used by various stakeholders, such as cybersecurity organizations, government bodies, and security experts who intend to share cybersecurity information.Item Proceedings of the Foundational Digital Capabilities Research (FDCR) Conference 2025 (FDCR 2025): Towards a sustainable digital economy(2025-08) Calteaux, Karen V; Kobo, Hlabishi IThe FDCR Platform, a flagship initiative of the Department of Science, Technology and Innovation (DSTI), managed by the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), facilitates research, development and innovation in digital transformation through collaborative initiatives and open-access frameworks. These efforts aim to establish a robust information and communication technology industry for (South) Africa. The FDCR Platform currently encapsulates over 55 projects across five domains, namely Modelling and Simulation; Artificial Intelligence and Robotics; Mixed Reality and Digital Twins; Cloud-to-edge computing, Advanced-IoT and Networking; and Cybersecurity and Blockchain. The Online Proceedings of the Foundational Digital Capabilities Research (FDCR) Conference (FDCR 2025) contain 17 full-text papers presented during the event held at Durban, South Africa, 17-18 July 2025.Item Does Gartner’s Hype Cycle Theory match practice?(2025) Badenhorst, Danielle P; Mashabane, ST; Morele, JX; Mutizwa, T; Vundla, PQM; Grobbelaar, SThe Gartner Hype Cycle has become a widely used industry tool to assess the maturity and potential adoption of emerging technologies. As this model has a prominent influence on investor decision making, an in-depth systematic review of it is necessary. The purpose of this paper is to systematically review and analyse Gartner’s Hype Cycle. In doing so, the objective is to describe how the model is analysed in various sources of literature and then assess the continued relevance of the model as a question is raised: Does Gartner’s Hype Cycle theory match practice? By conducting a systematic review of multiple articles, a differing view of the Hype Cycle in academic literature was observed in comparison to industry sentiment. The results of this review indicate that there are multiple inconsistencies with the current Hype Cycle implementation. Various factors limit the overall applicability of the model; methodological flaws, information gathering flaws, and oversimplification of complex phenomena make up some of these limitations. Notwithstanding these flaws, some benefits of the model are also discussed. Finally, some future recommendations are illustrated, highlighting the need for an empirically attested mathematical representation of the model. Finally, some future recommendations are illustrated, highlighting the need for an empirically attested mathematical representation of the model.Item Evaluating the impact and challenges of public disaster alert systems in KwaZulu-Nata(2025-05) Mulaudzi, Phindulo O; Mokoto, Bayanda T; Mothwa, Louis; Mukange, Tsumbedzo; Koen, Hildegarde S; Ndamase, ZimasaThis study evaluates the effectiveness of disaster communication systems in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, to identify challenges and gaps in current dissemination channels. Through a qualitative analysis of 20 secondary sources (government reports, academic articles, and media publications from 2013-2024), this research then proposes actionable strategies to enhance disaster preparedness and response. By focusing on the unique socio-cultural and geographical context of KwaZulu-Natal, this study addresses a gap in localised disaster management research. Key findings reveal that existing disaster communication channels are not fully effective, particularly in reaching vulnerable communities. Identified challenges include inadequate infrastructure, lack of coordination between government agencies, language barriers, and the media's focus on event-driven rather than preparedness-driven communication. The study emphasises the need for targeted communication strategies to address specific needs, such as implementing community-based warning systems. Recommendations include enhancing coordination among stakeholders, investing in infrastructure improvements, and tailoring messages to local contexts.