Khanyile, Ntokozo MMbukani, MWK2026-08-252026-08-252026-081996-1073https://doi.org/10.3390/en19163770http://hdl.handle.net/10204/14904In this paper, a route- and environment-aware rule-based energy management system (EMS) strategy for EVs equipped with HESSs consisting of a lithium-ion battery and a supercapacitor is proposed. The proposed rule-based EMS integrates driving mode classification, traffic conditions, road gradient, wind resistance, ambient temperature, and the supercapacitor (SOC) to determine the optimal power-sharing strategy between the battery and the supercapacitor under various driving conditions, including city, highway, and stop-and-go traffic. A mathematical model of the EV powertrain, battery, and supercapacitor is developed. The performance of the proposed rule-based EMS strategy is validated in MATLAB/SIMULINK under three representative driving cycles: the Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule (UDDS), Artemis Motorway 130, and a Central Business District (CBD) driving cycle. It is shown that the proposed rule-based EMS strategy significantly reduces the battery current stress while increasing supercapacitor usage.FulltextenElectric vehiclesEVsHESSBattery–supercapacitorEnergy management systemRule-based controlSupercapacitor utilisationBattery current reductionRoute-aware energy managementArticlen/a