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2D MXenes nanomaterials for removal of organic wastewater contaminants
(CRC Press, 2024-12) Mdlalose, Lindani M; Hlekelele, Lerato; Chauke, Vongaini P
The research and development of two-dimensional (2D) materials was prompted and advanced after the discovery of the remarkable physical properties of single/multiple layered graphene. This hastily encouraged more research on 2D materials in the form of manipulating the structure of graphene through exfoliation, altering the starting material with readily available layered precursors such as graphite-like hexagonal boron nitride or dichalcogenides or even layered oxides [1]. This then stimulated the development of more 2D materials including the birth of MXenes. MXenes are a group 2D transition metal carbides, carbonitrides, and nitrides discovered in 2011 [2]. Their single flakes are denoted by a chemical formula Mn+1 Xn Tx (n = 1 to 4), which designates transition metals alternating layers (M) enclosed by carbon/nitrogen (X) layers with attached terminations Tx (-O2 , -F2 , -OH2 , -Cl2 ) on the external transition metal surfaces [3]. Due to their intriguing electrical and optical properties, they play numerous roles in photodetectors. Additionally, their distinctive mechanical, chemical, and physical properties allow MXenes to be altered by various surface terminations and transition metals. The atomically narrow structure of 2D MXenes makes it an appropriate alternative material for water purification technologies. Additionally, its large surface area, excellent mechanical strength, and numerous functional groups on their surfaces make it a suitable candidate for the uptake of contaminants from aqueous medium [4]. MXenes water purification interest is facilitated by its unique adsorptive, antibacterial, and reductive properties, which are further augmented by high electrical conductivity. With the intensive industrialization and vast agricultural systems, the release of toxic contaminants into ground and surface water continues to be a strain on the environment. In this chapter, the potential use of 2D MXenes derivatives for organic contaminants (such as dyes, antibiotics, and pharmaceuticals) removal is addressed. This entails mechanistic pathways of using MXene-based materials as adsorbents, water purification membranes, and photocatalysts. The ability of MXenebased composites in showing catalytic activity toward diverse pollutants and superior selectivity toward specific pollutants will be discussed.
Active nanocomposite films based on low density polyethylene/organically modified layered bouble hydroxides/thyme oil to retain retail shelf life and quality of hass avocados
(2020-11) Kesavan Pillai, Sreejarani; Sivakumar, D; Ray, SS; Obianom, P; Eggers, SK; Mhlabeni, T
In this study, the ability of an active film containing volatile bioactives in post-harvest disease control and preservation of quality in avocados is explored as a non-traditional treatment method. Antimicrobial transparent flexible trilayer low density polyethylene (LDPE) films containing organically modified layered double hydroxides (OLDH) and plant bioactive-thyme oil (TO) were made using single step blown film extrusion. Antifungal effects of the packaging in comparison to commercial treatment and untreated control showed considerable reduction in anthracnose disease events in ‘Hass’ cultivar of avocados while improving the fruit quality. 2wt% OLDH loading improved the oxygen and moisture barrier properties while not affecting the transparency of the film. The results suggest that the synergistic effect of barrier and antimicrobial properties of the controlled volatile bioactive release of the nanocomposite film can be utilised as a prospective strategy to modify the headspace gas composition to combat anthracnose disease in avocados.
Advanced of Starch-Based Bioplastics
(Elsevier, 2024) Mtibe, Asanda; Nomadolo, Elizabeth N; Hlekelele, Lerato; Mokhena, TC; Ofosu, Osei; John, Maya J; Ojijo, Vincent O
The potential of starch-based plastics is well-known and well-researched. In recent years, starch-based materials have been used in both commercial and industrial applications to develop biodegradable and sustainable products and address the negative impacts caused by synthetic plastic products. Synthetic plastics are derived from petroleum-based resources and are non-biodegradable, causing plastic waste pollution. Starch-based bioplastics are selected as an alternative to synthetic plastics due to their availability, renewability, sustainability, biocompatibility, and biodegradability. The conversion of starch into thermoplastic starch (TPS) will be discussed in this study. In addition, the development of starch-based bioplastics using different processing techniques such as melt extrusion, injection molding, compression molding, blown film extruder as well as 3D and 4Dprinting will be also discussed. The market analysis of starch and starch-based materials, their properties, and applications, as well as prospects to determine if starch-based bioplastics are economically and practically feasible, will be thoroughly discussed.
Biocement: A novel approach in the restoration of construction materials
(Springer Nature, 2020-06) Enshasy, HE; Dailin, DJ; Malek, RA; •Nordin, NZ; Nordin, NZ; Keat, HC; Eyahmalay, J; Ramchuran, Santosh O; Ghong, JNC; Ramda, VM; Lalloo, Rajesh; Yadav, AN; Rastegari, AA; Gupta, VK; Yadav, N
Concrete is the most commonly used construction material worldwide for the development of durable structures. Structural integrity and design of buildings have become increasingly important in construction engineering as well as assessment of mixed formulation including cement and aggregate (i.e. sand, slag and stone). Microcrack formation on concrete may result in increased degradation and porous concrete. Therefore, there is a need to preserve and maintain concrete structures due to its high associated cost of restoration. In addition, reducing the negative environmental impact due to high CO2 emissions during cement production need to be considered as well. One key solution includes bio-based self-healing techniques. Research has focused on biomineralisation, a method of sealing microcracks using bacterial calcium carbonate deposits, via a common process of biocementation or microbiologically induced calcium carbonate precipitation (MICP). As such, these deposits possess promising micro-bonding and pore-filling macro-effects for potential application in the construction industry. In view of these novel state-of-the-art techniques, this chapter provides an overview of potential microbes, mode of action of the self-healing process, primary limitations for future techniques and potential applications in the construction industry.
Biomass-based wood composite for building material application
(Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2024) Mphahlele, IJ; Khoaele, Katleho K; Gbadeyan, O J; Chunilall, Viren
Fossil fuel serves as the primary global source of energy. It is anticipated that fossil fuels will be depleted in the next half-century. Using biomassbased wood composite for building applications serves as a substitute for fossil fuels. Biomass-based wood composite has proved to display good properties for application in the building sector. This chapter illustrates the valorization of biomass-based materials, sawdust, and wood flour in various building applications. Sawdust-based polymer resin polystyrene for particle board production displayed excellent compressive and tensile strengths of 0.157 N/mm2 and 2.362 N/mm2 respectively. Furthermore, cement substituted with sawdust exhibited satisfactory results for producing bricks or blocks. The results displayed a compressive strength of 10.43 N/mm² following ASTM C67. Moreover, clay bricks production using sawdust content of 2.5 wt% fired at 1100°C depicted a high compressive strength of 18.2 MPa, following ASTM C62-13a, which required a compressive strength of 17.2 MPa -according to the American National Standard Institute (ANSI), composites panels produced using sawdust with plastic waste and polystyrene exhibited good mechanical properties which can be applied for flooring application. The results displayed a modulus of elasticity (MOE) from 694.88 MPa to 4604.89 MPa and a modulus of rupture (MOR) from 5.73 to 21.24 MPa. Wood flour (WF) also displayed potential use in furniture applications. The results showed that 30 wt% WF-filled r-PP content wood polymer composite (WPC) displayed 24.8 MPa tensile strength. Moreover, the flexural strength of 46.2 MPa was achieved due to using MAPP as a coupling agent. According to the ASTM D 6662, the lowest flexural modulus of 0.34 GPa and 6.9 MPa flexural strength is required for decking boards. The results displayed excellent flexural modulus ranging from 2.49 to 3.8 GPa and flexural strength from 23.05 to 35.82 MPa. This is further evidence that wood flour-based composite can be utilized in decking application.
Carbon-metal sulfide nanomaterial photocatalysts for environmental remediation
(Elsevier, 2024) Hlekelele, Lerato; Mdlalosem, Lindani M; Nomadolo, Elizabeth N; Mtibe, Asanda; Chauke, Vongani; Makgwane, Peter R; Kumar, Naveen
The combination of transition metals and sulfides creates a class of elite semiconductor materials that are capable of forming important electrochemical reactions under reasonable conditions. These electrochemical reactions have been shown to be beneficial in environmental remediation and other applications. Some metal sulfides have been shown to have an edge over metal oxides, including their narrow band gaps and their sulfur edges with lone pairs which is suitable for photocatalytic reactions. However, metal sulfides have problems associated with photocorrosion and the short lifetime span of the photogenerated charge carriers. There are various ways scientists have implemented to increase the viability of metal sulfides as photocatalysts, in particular, using carbonaceous materials. The formation of hybrid heterostructures between metal sulfides and carbonaceous materials (graphitic carbon nitride) is one of the most studied methods of increasing the separation of charge carriers. The most studied types of heterostructures are Type-I, Type-II, and the p-n junctions, all with their advantages and disadvantages. Characterization techniques such as photoluminescence and transient photocurrent are usually used to demonstrate the usefulness of forming these types of heterojunctions. Apart from the formation of heterojunctions is compositing metal sulfides with conducting carbonaceous materials that do not have a band gap. In this instance, the carbon nanomaterials act as sinks for the photoinduced electrons. In this regard, different types of carbon nanomaterials have been shown to effectively increase the lifespan of the electron and hole pairs including carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, graphene oxide (GO), reduced GO, and biochar, among others.
Collagen-Based Hybrid Piezoelectric Material
(John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 2024-04) Ghosh, A; Ray, Suprakas S; Orasugh, Jonathan T; Chattopadhyay, D; Ul-Islam, S; Wazed Ali, S; Bairagi, S
Piezoelectricity, a bidirectional electromechanical coupling, has an extensive range of functions, such as energy harvesters, biomedical devices, sensors, cars, etc. A considerable amount of research has been conducted to investigate this phenomenon's energy harvesting potential. Traditional piezoelectric inorganics have high piezoelectric outputs but are frequently brittle and inflexible and may contain dangerous substances such as mercury or other heavy metals which are toxic to humans as well as other animals. Biological piezoelectric materials, on the other hand, are biodegradable, biocompatible, bioabsorbable, sustainable, non-cytotoxic, as well as facile to fabricate. As a result, they are valuable for a large number of applications, including tissue engineering, biological research, and energy harvesting. The rationale of this chapter is to describe the basis of piezoelectricity in collagen-based biological as well as non-biological hybrid materials, as well as the research involved in those materials as per literature, along with their uses and limitations.
Development of sustainable biobased polymer and bio-nanocomposite materials using nanocellulose obtained from agricultural biomass
(Routledge, 2020-07) Mtibe, Asanda; Muniyasamy, Sudhakar; Motaung, TE; Godfrey, Linda K; Görgens, JF; Roman, H
Biobased polymer and bio-nanocomposites have provided significant improvement in material science, moving towards the development of green materials to replace petro-based materials. The present study investigated the value-added utilisation of agriculturalbiomass residues derived from sugar cane bagasse and maize stalks for the development of biobased polymer and bio-nanocomposite materials for specific applications. In this study, extraction of cellulose and nanocellulose of environmentally friendly polymeric materials and their composite peoducts were studied. The study showed that the incorporation of nanocellulose into biopolymer matrix could produce bio-nanocomposites for specific uses in various applications, mainly in the biomedical and green packaging sectors.
Durable PLA Bioplastics
(Elsevier, 2024) Sinha Roy, Jayita; Ray, Suprakas S
Bioplastics are special plastics manufactured from biobased polymers and can potentially contribute to the circular plastics economy. In this direction, polylactic acid or polylactide (both abbreviated as PLA) is the most important commercially available polymer whose monomeric unit, lactic acid, can be produced from renewable resources. PLA has good thermal plasticity and mechanical properties and can be readily molded. During the manufacturing of PLA-based plastic products, the carbon footprint is approximately 75% lower than that of conventional plastic products. In the context of life cycle assessment and the eco-profile (input and output from the manufacturing process) of PLA, benefits and drawbacks, strategies for overcoming the drawbacks, and the trend of applications, it is worthy to develop PLA-based durable products considering regenerative technical approach. Therefore, this chapter reports recent progress in developing durable PLA bioplastics for various applications. Various strategies have been critically summarized, such as plasticization, copolymerization, and melt blending with different tough polymers, rubbers, thermoplastic elastomers, and nanomaterials. Changing the processing technology, modification of PLA by chemical methods or cross-linking and grafting, and annealing can improve the properties of PLA, which are also discussed in this chapter.
Fiber and textile waste valorization - towards environmental waste reduction
(Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2024-10) Baloyi, Rivalani B; Gbadeyan, OJ; Sithole, Bruce B; Chunilall, Viren; Gbadeyan, Oluwatoyin J; Sekoai, Patrick; Chunilall, Viren
The valorization of natural fibers and textile waste represents a promising approach to reducing environmental waste. This strategy involves converting waste materials into valuable products, promoting sustainability and resource efficiency. This chapter examines the technical feasibility of various textile recycling processes and assesses the challenges and limitations associated with each. A comprehensive analysis of various methodologies employed in the recycling and regeneration of fibers, extraction of cellulose, fermentation to bioethanol, pyrolysis, and conversion to other value-added products is discussed in detail. Additionally, the chapter offers insights into prospects and recommendations for establishing a sustainable economy for recycling textiles. The primary obstacles encountered in valorizing fibers and textiles encompass the substantial expenses associated with implementing valorization technologies, sorting and separation methodologies, and the limited yields attained during the processes. Consequently, a hierarchical strategy has been determined as the most effective approach for allocating each type of textile waste to the optimal valorization method, thereby facilitating the efficient retrieval of the preserved quality within the waste materials.
Functional applications of human microbiome diversity studies
(Academic Press, 2024) Nkera-Gutabara, Claudine; Hurrell, Tracey; Naidoo, Jerolen; Das, S; Dash, HJ
The human microbiome refers to the collection of symbiotic, pathogenic, and commensal microorganisms that co-inhabit discrete sites across the human body and play a crucial role in human physiology, health, and disease. The average human body houses more bacterial cells than it does human ones, and this has led to the human microbiome being referred to as the second genome of its host. Perturbation of the natural balance of microbes within the human body, referred to as dysbiosis, has been associated with human pathologies including neurodegenerative diseases, tuberculosis, fatty liver disease, obesity, cancer, and human immunodeficiency virus. The pervasive impact of the microbiome on various aspects of human physiology is also becoming increasingly appreciated as understanding around the various gut–organ axes (e.g., gut–brain, gut–liver) continue to emerge and evolve. Importantly, the microbiome is readily influenced and shaped by environmental factors including lifestyle, diet, and environmental exposures. This dynamic nature of the microbiome enables the detection of changes in microbiome profiles, which are indicative of potential disease risk before the onset of more permanent health effects. The human microbiome is also readily malleable to noninvasive interventions like prebiotics, postbiotics, and lifestyle changes. This further posits the microbiome as attractive target for therapeutic interventions and as the next frontier for health innovation. Several international research efforts, catalyzed by the human microbiome project, have thus sought to propel the clinical relevance of microbiome research, through the accurate identification of outlier signatures indicative of disease onset and risk. In this chapter, we discuss the human microbiome, its role in human health, the factors that regulate it, and the functional applications of microbiome research.
Fundamentals of biomass waste valorization
(Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2024-10) Khoaele, Katleho K; Gbadeyan, Oluwatoyin J; Mphahlele, IJ; Sithole, BB; Chunilall, Viren; Sekoai, P; Chunilall, V; Gbadeyan, JG
The devastating impact of climate change and the necessity for sustainable products and processing approaches are significant concerns for the worldwide population. Interestingly, there is an abundance of biomass resources, which might meet the increasing demand for green products, as using fossil fuels is no longer recommended due to environmental concerns and sustainability. Biomass resources (renewable feedstock for renewable energy generation and specialty chemicals) are sourced from several natural sources and have a variety of applications. Most developed economies follow linear consumption concepts that are not feasible in the long term. The circular bioeconomy concept is a promising solution to minimize waste landfilling, generate revenue, and maximize zero-waste by utilizing biomass waste. The valorization of cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose fractions into bioproducts, biofuels, or specialty chemicals depends on the practicality of their pre-treatment and further processing approaches. This chapter discusses biomass feedstock history, valorization processes, and applications, and motivations for their exploration. Several value-added products, which can be harnessed from biomass and residues, are detailed.
Glass fibres - Production, structure, and applications
(Elsevier, 2024) Orasugh, Jonathan T; Roy, S; Ray, Suprakas S; Chattopadhyay, D; Mondal, Md. IH
One of the most adaptable industrial materials available today is “glass fibres (GFs)”: they are easily made from raw infinitely abundant ingredients. Glass fibre made of silica has a long history. Common glass fibres are available in a variety of chemical compositions. The majority of glass fibres are silica-based (50–60% SiO2) and include a variety of additional oxides, including those of calcium, boron, sodium, aluminum, iron, and others. The letters E and C stand for electrical, corrosion/chemical, and high silica content, respectively. S denotes high silica content: S-glass can endure higher temperatures compared to its counterparts in addition to being a great electrical insulator, excellent strength, and a reasonable Young's modulus. Glass fibres are utilized to create printed circuit boards, structural composites, etc. This chapter discusses briefly, glass fibres history, its production, structure, applications, challenges, and ways forwards and then a concise conclusion is drawn.
Government initiatives in advancing the circular bioeconomy in South Africa
(Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2024-10) Sekoai, Patrick T; Sebogodi, Keolebogile R; Johakimu, Jonas K; Chunilall, Viren; Gbadeyan, OJ; Sekoai, P; Chunilall, V
The concept of a circular economy is receiving widespread attention among various stakeholders in South Africa as this scientific approach allows the management of waste streams in a sustainable and environmentally conscious manner while creating new value chains through the synthesis of high-value-added products such as fuels, chemicals, additives, etc. As opposed to the linear model that embraces the take, produce, and discard approach, the circular model embraces the recycle, reuse, and reduce approach, which involves the circularity of the wastes, leading to minimum and/or zero waste during the downstream process. Despite the various socioeconomic benefits that can be achieved from the circular biobased processes, various bottlenecks must be addressed before their full implementation. This chapter discusses the government initiatives to advance circular biobased opportunities in South Africa. The limitations that delay the progress of this technology are also discussed. The study also provides suggestions that could help fast-track the scalability of circular biobased technologies in South Africa.
Green fabrication techniques for transparent wood composites: Pioneering sustainable materials for the future
(Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2024) Simelane, NP; Olatunji, OS; Mathew, Maya J; Andrew, Jerome E
As the world battles with environmental challenges and the need for sustainable alternatives to conventional building materials such as glass, transparent wood composites have emerged as a promising solution. Transparent wood composites, derived from renewable and abundant wood resources, offer a unique combination of strength, thermal insulation, and optical transparency. This chapter explores the latest progress in transparent wood composites, focusing on innovative and eco-friendly fabrication techniques that pave the way for widespread adoption in various applications. It highlights using sustainable wood sources, such as fast-growing trees, and reducing energy-intensive processing steps. The chapter also explores other emerging technologies, including nanocellulose reinforcements and bio-based polymers, that have the potential to revolutionize the fabrication of transparent wood composites. Through a comprehensive review of recent advancements and prospects, this chapter aims to provide researchers with valuable insights into the exciting world of transparent wood composites. Focusing on green fabrication techniques underscores the critical role transparent wood composites can play in building a more sustainable and environmentally responsible future.
Gut microbiome engineering for cancer therapies
(CRC Press, 2024-10) Chipiti, T; Ledet, EM; Skepu, Amanda; Dlamini, Z; Dlamini, Zodwa
The gut microbiota has been established to possess properties that can be manipulated and resultantly aid in preventing and reducing malignancies. A major approach to achieving this is by engineering bacteria to transport therapeutic payloads that can effectively target the cancer microenvironment. This can be accomplished through various techniques like tumor-targeting probiotic bacteria, genetic engineering, and surface modification. This chapter explores the innovative techniques and approaches that can be used to enhance cancer therapy by modifying the gut microbiota chassis using synthetic biology, microbial therapies, and personalized treatments. By leveraging the potential of gut microbiota, we may be able to transform cancer therapy and pave the way for more successful treatments and outcomes.
Introduction to hybrid piezoelectric materials
(John Wiley & Sons, 2024-04) Dhlamini, Khanyisile S; Orasugh, Jonathan T; Ray, Suprakas S; Chattopadhyay, D
In response to the global energy crisis and pollution resulting primarily from nonrenewable energy sources, researchers are exploring alternative energy machinery capable of harvesting energy under ambient environmental conditions. Piezoelectric energy harvesting is rapidly becoming a preferred technique for powering devices on a mesoscale to microscale. Piezoelectric materials can produce electricity as a result of mechanical stress; these materials can also exhibit the inverse piezoelectric effect, known as the converse effect. Certain materials possess piezoelectric properties, such as bone, proteins, crystals (quartz), and ceramics (lead zirconate titanate). The combination of piezoelectric materials with two or more other materials leads to the development of hybrid materials that have improved properties and can be applied to novel applications. With hybrid piezoelectric materials, existing technologies can be enhanced, and new devices and systems can be developed, ranging from healthcare, ultrasonic transducers, energy storage, smart fabrics, sensors and actuators, energy-harvesting systems, and robotics.
Marine microbial pharmacognosy: Prospects and perspectives
(Springer, 2020-11) Mohanrasu, K; Guru Raj Rao, R; Sudhakar, Muniyasamy; Raja, R; Jeyakanthan, J; Arun, A; Nathani, NM; Mootapally, C; Gadhvi, IR; Maitreya, B; Joshi, CG
Modern scientific advancements and research on marine microbes has revealed their significance as producers of therapeutic products useful in treating various human diseases. Microbes in marine habitat have evolved to adapt to the harsh condition that prevails in the ocean. Their struggle to compete for space and nutrients has paved way for the synthesis of different novel enzymes possessing distinctive characteristics. Thus, marine habitat hosts many remarkable microorganisms that offer unique biologically active compounds, enzymes endowed with astonishing properties, and mechanism to survive in extreme environmental conditions. The utilization of marine biotic resources grows at an extraordinary growth rate of 12% per annum and is evident from about 4900 patents filed connected with marine genetic resources and 18,000 natural compounds. This concern has boosted research all over the world to explore the untapped potential hidden in marine microbes, which has lot of biotechnological applications that includes bioactive compounds (metabolites) for therapeutics, novel enzymes, cosmetics, and nutraceuticals. This book chapter will meticulously deliberate the utilization of marine resources by biotechnological applications for therapeutics like antibiotics, chemical compounds, biopolymer, enzymes, and various microbial biomedical purposes such as drug delivery and tissue engineering from marine biota (bacteria, fungi, and algae).
Metal oxide nanocomposites for adsorption and photoelectrochemical degradation of pharmaceutical pollutants in aqueous solution
(Springer, 2020-04) Mdlalose, Lindani M; Chauke, Vongani P; Nomadolo, Elizabeth N; Msomi, P; Setshedi, Katlego Z; Chimuka, L; Chetty, Ashlen; Ama, OM; Ray, Suprakas S
The global deterioration of water quality which is associated with industrialisation, urbanisation, and a growing population is reaching critical levels and thus needs to be addressed urgently. Common pollutants that are discharged from industries and sewage plants include unknown toxic chemicals, heavy-metals and micro-organisms; these are well known and thoroughly studied. Of growing and great concern to both human and animal health is the new emerging class of pollutants known as endocrine disruptor chemicals (EDCs) or emerging organic compounds (EOCs); these are frequently associated with residues from pharmaceutical industries, i.e. they comprise of common drugs such as antibiotics, medication for chronic illnesses, pain killers. Regrettably, the traditional water purification systems cannot fully remove these pollutants, thus they are found in various water systems in minute concentrations. The danger is in the long run accumulative exposure to humans, animals and the environment. There are several methods that have been developed, reported and used for the removal of these pollutants. Several removal or remediation technologies have been studied and reported for the mineralisation of these emerging organic pollutants and of interest to this work is photocatalysis using light harvesting materials such TiO2 (i.e. semiconductors) and electrochemistry. The drawbacks associated with semiconductors are low quantum yields that emanate from rapid recombination of photo-generated electrons and holes with very low lifetimes. To overcome these drawbacks and to enhance degradation, an electrical external field can be applied across the catalyst or semiconductor to induce special separation of photo-generated electron hole pair to allow a sink for the electrons in a process called photoelectrochemistry. This chapter highlights the reported mineralisation of organic pollutants photoelectrochemistry using semiconductors; it also highlights the efficiency of photoelectrocatalysis when compared with photocatalysis alone.
Micro nano manufacturing methods for chemical, gas and bio sensors, water purification and energy technologies
(Intechopen, 2020-12) Akande, Amos A; Adeleye, AA; Adenle, AA; Mwakikunga, Bonex W
This chapter reports on the various methods of fabricating and manufacturing micro and nano sensor, membrane and energy devices. Firstly, the characteristic often sought after by scientists and engineers for effective and efficient performance of these technologies were thoroughly discussed in details together with the characterization techniques for evaluating them. Several state-of-the-art fabricating techniques for sensor devices, water and medical based-membranes, solar cells and batteries were also discussed.

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