ResearchSpace :: Browsing by Author "Mathe, Ntombizodwa R"

Browsing by Author "Mathe, Ntombizodwa R"

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2D numerical model for heat transfer on a laser deposited high entropy alloy baseplate using Comsol Multiphysics
(2021-12) Dada, A; Popoola, P; Mathe, Ntombizodwa R; Adeosun, S; Aramide, O
In an optimization study, cracks were observed in the microstructures of laser-deposited HEAs on a steel baseplate from residual stresses, thus, the optimization of crack-free microstructures was achieved by the optimization of the laser parameters by baseplate preheating attributed to the lowering of the thermal gradients of the deposition process. This study reports the finite element analysis on the temperature distribution by the moving laser modelled to achieve process optimization with the necessary boundary conditions. Simulation has been reported as a facilitating tool in predicting the behaviour of materials during process optimization. Comsol Multiphysics 4.4, was used to create a 2D transient heat transfer time-dependent model to simulate the temperature distribution and the laser heating of the A301 steel baseplate surface and determine the effect of temperature on the optimization process of the alloys. Gaussian profiles were used as the heat source distributed per time. The results are presented in terms of thermal fields and Gaussian temperature profiles. Which show the temperature distribution that occurred in the steel baseplate during fabrication and the high cooling rate of the laser additive manufacturing technique restricted thermal stresses, improving adhesion and facilitating the optimization process.
Characterization of gas atomized Ti-6Al-4V powders for additive manufacturing
(Scientific.Net, 2018-05) Tshabalala, Lerato C; Mathe, Ntombizodwa R; Chikwanda, HIlda K
In this paper, titanium powders from various sources were characterized to compare powder integrity for additive manufacturing by selective laser melting process. Selective laser melting by powder-bed based Additive Manufacturing (AM) is an advanced manufacturing process that bonds successive layers of powder by laser melting to facilitate the creation of engineering components. This manufacturing approach facilitates the production of components with high geometrical complexity that would otherwise be impossible to create through conventional manufacturing processes. Although the use of powder in AM is quite common, powder production and optimization of powder properties to yield desired performance characteristics has posed a serious challenge to researchers. It is therefore critical that powder properties be studied and controlled to ensure reliability and repeatability of the components that are produced. Typically, the desired feature of high quality titanium metal powders for AM are a combination of high sphericity, density and flowability. Scanning electron microscopy, EDS, particle size distribution and powder rheology were extensively performed to investigate the properties of gas-atomized Ti-6Al-4V powders.
The comparative study of the microstructural and corrosion behaviour of laser-deposited high entropy alloys
(2021-06) Dada, M; Popoola, P; Mathe, Ntombizodwa R; Pityana, Sisa L; Adeosun, S; Aramide, O
Corrosion is a conservational occurrence that has a large economic impact on most metals and its alloys because it destroys and deteriorates most materials by an electrochemical process through the reaction of these materials with the environment. High Entropy Alloys in aerospace applications react with the environment in applications such as jet engines, especially at elevated temperatures. Thus, the capacity of high entropy alloys to resist corrosion must be investigated to expand the application of this advanced material in the aerospace industry. In this comparative study, AlCoCrFeNiCu and AlCoCrFeNiTi High Entropy Alloy samples were fabricated by Laser Additive Manufacturing, particularly direct energy deposition and the corrosion behaviour of both alloys were examined and compared. The influence of the laser processing parameters on the microstructure and corrosion responses of the high entropy alloys in 3.5 wt% NaCl solution was also investigated. The microstructural morphologies were examined using an X-ray diffraction system (XRD) and Scanning electron microscope (SEM) equipped with Energy Dispersion Spectroscopy (EDS). The results showed that the Scan speed had the most influence on the microstructure and corrosion behaviour of the alloys. There was a strong relationship between the phase structure of the alloys and their susceptibility to localized corrosion. Therefore, it has been proposed in this study that the phase distribution within the alloys also influences the corrosion behaviour of laser deposited high entropy alloys.
Design and simulation of a bearing housing aerospace component from titanium alloy (TI6AL4V) for additive manufacturing
(2022-12) Oyesola, M; Mpofu, K; Daniyan, I; Mathe, Ntombizodwa R
In evaluating emerging technology, such as additive manufacturing, it is important to analyse the impact of the manufacturing process on efficiency in an objective and quantifiable manner. This study deals with the design and simulation of a bearing housing made from titanium alloy (Ti6Al4V) using the selective laser melting (SLM) technique. The Finite Element Analysis (FEA) method was used for assessing the suitability of Ti6Al4V for aerospace application. The choice of Ti6Al4V is due to the comparative advantage of its strength-to-weight ratio. The implicit and explicit modules of the Abaqus software were employed for the non-linear and linear analyses of the component part. The results obtained revealed that the titanium alloy (Ti6Al4V) sufficiently meets the design, functional and service requirements of the bearing housing component produced for aerospace application. The designed bearing is suitable for a high speed and temperature application beyond 1900 K, while the maximum stress induced in the component during loading was 521 kPa. It is evident that the developed stresses do not result in a distortion or deformation of the material with yield strength in the region of 820 MPa. This work provides design data for the development of a bearing housing for AM under the technique of SLM using Ti6Al4V by reflecting the knowledge of the material behaviour under the operating conditions.
Development of an integrated design methodology model for quality and throughput of Additive Manufacturing processes
(Elsevier, 2019-05) Oyesola, MO; Mpofu, K; Mathe, Ntombizodwa R; Danisyam, I
Additive manufacturing (AM) has risen to be a substantial part of modern manufacturing due to its unique capabilities and has already been fondly adopted in various fields especially in the aerospace. In order to fully harness the benefits of this revolutionary manufacturing technology, this article aims to develop a practical integrated design methodology that can be used to enhance quality and throughput of AM processes. In doing so, investigation were conducted to examine an AM aero-based component through design tools that allow designers to consider an integrated process chain, from component design to pre-processing, manufacturing (laser bed fusion building), post-processing and finished part. The developed design model integrated with decision tools will assist the design experts in developing new knowledge that looks beyond the familiar Design for Additive Manufacturing (DfAM) rather to Design towards product Certification (DoC). In addition, this will serve as an effective design guidance that can inform proper design planning and optimization in aerospace industry production.
Development of ideal processing parameters for powder bed fusion system processing of AlSi10Mg using design of experiments
(2021-08) Mathe, Ntombizodwa R
The additive manufacturing of aluminium alloys has gained great interest in the transport industry in the past 10 years. This is mainly due to the lightweight and good strength that these alloys offer especially for applications in aerospace and other related industries. However, there is a drawback in using these alloys especially the parts produced by additive manufacturing as they have to be heat treated before application to relieve residual stresses caused by the fast heating and cooling experienced during powder bed fusion (PBF) fabrication. Most of the current PBF metal system offer a variety of processing parameters for part building, however AM uptake and industrial implementation is still slow due to restrictions of the laser power and laser interaction time that are slow and thus the parts take long to produce. Seeing this lag in the market, the CSIR has produced a high speed and high power PBF machine with a build platform larger than the currently available commercial systems. This system allows for the faster production of parts due to its higher consolidation rate and it has already been validated for aluminium alloys, specifically AlSi10Mg. The properties evaluated were microstructure and hardness, which found to be comparable to commercial PBF machines. The samples were analysed for microstructure, mechanical properties using tensile testing procedure. In order to determine that ideal processing window, the response surface methods was used on the Stat-Ease Design Expert software using ultimate tensile strength, elongation and hardness as outputs. Based on the data analysed, the processing window was narrowed to 1400 W laser power and 1.63 – 1.95 s interaction time.
Effect of laser parameters on the properties of high entropy alloys: A preliminary study
(Elsevier, 2020-05) Dada, M; Popoola, P; Mathe, Ntombizodwa R; Pityana, Sisa L; Adeosun, S
This preliminary study investigates the fabrication of Al-Co-Cr-Fe-Ni-Cu and Al-Ti-Cr-Fe-Co-Ni High Entropy Alloys with the Laser Deposition Technique. The effect of the laser parameters on the microstructure and hardness properties of the advanced materials were studied for aerospace applications. The results revealed that significant 300% increment occurs in the microhardness from 200 to 600 HV for the AlCoCrFeNiCu alloy system and 70% increment from 500 to 850 HV for the AlTiCrFeCoNi system as the laser power increases from 600 W to 800 W. However, as the scanning speed increases, the microhardness decreases. There were no notable changes in the microstructure interface of both alloys with a change in process parameters and further analysis showed the AlCoCrFeNiCu alloy had a transitional columnar dendritic structure while the AlTiCrFeCoNi alloy had the equiaxed dendritic microstructure with the direction of the grains observed along with the height of the deposit. The hardness properties of AlTiCrFeCoNi observed was attributed to the Ti content known to improve strength by facilitating a solid laves phase which suggests a potential application for aerospace wear-resistant coatings.
Effect of niobium variation on the properties of directed energy deposited CrCoNiCuNbx coatings
(2024) Alabi, A; Popoola, A; Popoola, O; Mathe, Ntombizodwa R
The presence of a refractory metal such as niobium in highentropy alloys improves their hardness values, wear and corrosion resistance. Herein, a CrCoNiCuNbx alloy-system used as coating was developed by directed energy deposition technique, and the effect of niobium variation on microstructural and phase evolution, hardness, wear characteristics and corrosion resistance were studied in comparison to the base alloy (CrCoNiCu) and steel baseplate. In addition, structure-property correlations were conducted, and it was observed that the variation of niobium resulted in phase and microstructural evolutions of the alloysystem. These directly influenced the hardness, wear and corrosion resistance of coatings as it resulted in a 62.47% improvement in hardness at 0.50 niobium content and a more than 260-fold increase in corrosion resistance in 3.5% NaCl electrolyte at 0.25 niobium compared to the mild steel substrate. The wear resistance at 10 and 15 N applied loads for the coating with 0.75 niobium content were also found to be enhanced by about 93.94% and 80.83%, respectively, when compared to those of steel substrate.
The effect of porosity on the mechanical properties of Ti-6Al-4V components manufactured by high-power selective laser melting
(2021-07) Mathe, Ntombizodwa R; Tshabalala, Lerato C; Hoosain, Shaik; Motibane, Londiwe P; Du Plessis, A
Metal powder bed fusion in additive manufacturing is gaining interest as a manufacturing technique for complex metal parts in the aerospace, rail, and automotive industries. This has led to an emergence of 3D printers in the market to accelerate the diffusion of this technology as an industrial manufacturing technique. The Aeroswift is an additive manufacturing machine developed with the purpose of using high laser powers for high-speed production of structurally dense parts at accelerated consolidation rates. The work in this paper focuses on the 3D printing of Ti-6Al-4V tensile specimens with the aim of determining the effect of fast cooling rate and porosity on the ductility of the specimen. The mechanical properties of the parts depend on the energy input; in order to obtain optimum melting of powder and desirable properties, an exponential decay relationship was observed where, as porosity increased, the elongation dropped. The level of porosity at low energy density is attributed to lack of fusion from low heat input, while high energy inputs showed low porosity.
Effect of powder bed preheating on distortion and mechanical properties in high speed selective laser melting
(IOP Publishing, 2019-10) Motibane, Londiwe P; Tshabalala, Lerato C; Mathe, Ntombizodwa R; Hoosain, Shaik E; Knutsen, RD
Selective Laser Melting (SLM) is known to cause residual stresses due to the inherent large thermal gradients from high heating and cooling rates during manufacturing. The residual stresses tend to induce distortion, delamination of parts from the base plate as well as cracking because they reduce the threshold flaw size required for crack initiation. These challenges form a barrier to the use of this additive manufacturing method for structural applications for the aerospace industry where high part integrity is a critical requirement. The aim of the study was to evaluate the degree of distortion and crack growth resistance during increasing monotonic loading and cyclic loading of As-built Ti6Al4V parts produced on the Aeroswift high speed SLM process preheated at 200°C. The monotonic loading results are comparable to those of commercial SLM systems but are lower when compared conventional manufacturing methods. The crack growth resistance of the As-built specimen is lower than that of heat treated specimen. Distortion at this preheating temperature is evident at from 12cm away from the base of the cantilever and spreads to height of 3.2mm.
The effect of reducing agents on the electronic, magnetic and electrocatalytic properties of thiol-capped Pt/Co and Pt/Ni nanoparticles
(Springer, 2015-05) Mathe, Ntombizodwa R; Nkosi, SS; Motaung, DE; Scriba, Manfred R; Coville, NJ
The electronic, magnetic and electrocatalytic properties of bimetallic thiol-capped Pt/Co and Pt/Ni nanoparticles were synthesised using two reducing agents, NaBH(sub4) and N(sub2)H(sub4). X-ray diffraction analysis of the nanoparticles showed Pt lattice contraction upon the addition of Co or Ni to Pt indicating the formation of an alloy structure, more apparent when N(sub2)H(sub4) was used. XPS data analysis revealed Pt metal and Pt(II) (assigned to PtO) and a higher concentration of surface metallic Ni and Co for the NaBH(sub4-)reduced samples. Both the NaBH(sub4-) and N2H(sub4-)reduced catalysts were active for the methanol oxidation reaction (MOR), with the Pt-Co-N(sub2)H(sub4) catalyst revealing the highest activity. The N(sub2(H(sub4) significantly affected the magnetic properties of Pt/Co and Pt/Ni particles by controlling the morphology and crystalline structure of the nanoparticles. In general, the type of reducing agent affected the final properties of the nanoparticles.
The effect of selective laser melting build orientation on the mechanical properties of AlSi10Mg parts
(IOP Publishing, 2018-10) Mfusi, BJ; Tshabalala, Lerato C; Popoola, API; Mathe, Ntombizodwa R
Additive manufacturing is currently applied across a broad material selection and it is growing in production volume and economic impact. Aluminium is one of the materials that play a significant role in the aerospace industry because of its good strength-to-weight ratio. However, comparatively lower interest is shown in the additive manufacturing of aluminium alloys compared to titanium alloys, therefore there is much scope for data gathering and development of this material. In this investigation, the microstructure and mechanical properties of AlSi10Mg that were built using selective laser melting at different orientations are explored. The specimen were built in the XY, 45º and Z orientations. The microstructures of the obtained samples showed typical scan patterns with the density and hardness values similar to literature values. The XY built samples showed the lowest level of porosity and also possessed the lowest ultimate tensile strength and elongation. In contrast, the 45° built samples showed the highest ductility with the Z build samples showing the highest ultimate tensile strength. This behaviour is anisotropic where different properties are observed for different build orientations, thus the build orientation should be taken into consideration during the optimization of the laser processing parameters.
Effects of heat treatment on the properties of arc melted AlCuFeNiSi0.4 and AlCuFeNiTi0.2 high entropy alloys for engineering applications
(2024-12) Adeyoye, A; Popoola, P; Mathe, Ntombizodwa R; Popoola, O; Dada, M; Dhliwayo, N
In this study, AlCuFeNiSi0.4 and AlCuFeNiTi0.2 high entropy alloys (HEAs) were synthesized using arc melting. The as-cast alloys were heat treated at 750 °C for 4hrs then quenched in water and oil and aged for 6hrs to examine the influence of the quenching media (water and oil) on the microstructural, nanomechanical, corrosion and wear characteristics of the alloys. The XRD results revealed that both alloys had BCC phase and FCC phase structures, where Ti and Al were the BCC stabilizers and Cu and Ni acted as FCC stabilizers. The excellent combination of hardness and elastic modulus of both alloys quenched in water shows that ageing can improve the properties of the alloys. The alloys quenched in water after ageing offered improved properties compared to those quenched in oil for both alloys. The wear resistance was higher in AlCuFeNiSi0.4 than inAlCuFeNiTi0.2 attributed to the strengthening mechanism of the alloy. Electrochemical tests also showed that the AlCuFeNiSi0.4 alloy composition was more corrosion resistant and easier to passivate in 3.5% NaCl. The combined action of the elements in the HEA composition produced surface oxide layers that were more stable and resistant to corrosion. Hence, the heated treated Si0.4 HEA derivative has the potential to be used as materials in wider corrosive environments in the energy industry.
Electrical resistivity and oxidation behavior of Cu and Ti doped laser deposited high entropy alloys
(2022-09) Dada, M; Popoola, P; Mathe, Ntombizodwa R; Pityana, Sisa L; Adeosun, S
In this study, AlCoCrFeNi–Cu (Cu-based) and AlCoCrFeNi–Ti (Ti-based) high entropy alloys (HEAs) were fabricated using a direct blown powder technique via laser additive manufacturing on an A301 steel baseplate for aerospace applications. The purpose of this research is to investigate the electrical resistivity and oxidation behavior of the as-built copper (Cu)- and titanium (Ti)-based alloys and to understand the alloying effect, the HEAs core effects and the influence of laser parameters on the physical properties of the alloys. Design/methodology/approach. The as-received AlCoCrFeNiCu and AlCoCrFeNiTi powders were used to fabricate HEA clads on an A301 steel baseplate preheated at 400°C using a 3 kW Rofin Sinar dY044 continuous-wave laser-deposition system fitted with a KUKA robotic arm. The deposits were sectioned using an electric cutting machine and prepared by standard metallographic methods to investigate the electrical and oxidation properties of the alloys. Findings. The results showed that the laser power had the most influence on the physical properties of the alloys. The Ti-based alloy had better resistivity than the Cu-based alloy, whereas the Cu-based alloy had better oxidation residence than the Ti-based alloy which attributed to the compositional alloying effect (Cu, aluminum and nickel) and the orderliness of the lattice, which is significantly associated with the electron transportation; consequently, the more distorted the lattice, the easier the transportation of electrons and the better the properties of the HEAs.
Electropolishing of additively manufactured Ti-6Al-4V surfaces in nontoxic electrolyte solution
(2022-05) Tsoeunyane, GM; Mathe, Ntombizodwa R; Tshabalala, Lerato C; Makhatha, ME
The reduction of surface roughness on additively manufactured components has become a critical factor in engineering applications. This paper reports the electropolishing of additively manufactured Ti-6Al-4V by powder bed selective laser melting (SLM) using a nontoxic electrolyte solution. The results have shown that the salt-based electrolyte can be used to electropolish titanium alloys. The surface waviness of the as-built Ti-6Al-4V alloy was reduced by five times the average roughness of the as-built specimen. The minimum surface roughness obtained was 9.52 µm. The specimens were characterized by scanning electron microscope, Gwyddion software, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) to evaluate the surface morphology, surface profile, and charge transfer resistance. The X-ray photon spectroscopy (XPS) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectroscopy were used to characterize the surface chemistry of the specimen. The XPS and XRD showed TiO2 as the significant component on the surface of Ti-6Al-4V, and the atomic percentage on the surface increased after electropolishing. In addition, the EIS data indicated the high charge transfer resistance of the electropolished specimen, which shows the growth formation of the oxide layer.
Experimental and computational surface roughness analysis of aluminium silicon 12 (AlSi12) produced by powder bed fusion for transport applications
(2024-12) Nzengue, ACB; Mpofu, K; Mathe, Ntombizodwa R; Muvunzi, R
Surface roughness influences the mechanical performance of a part. A rougher surface is prone to cracks and corrosion due to increased friction and harsh environments in transport applications. Given that surface irregularities are difficult to control, post-processing is critical to improving the surface roughness. In this study, post-processing treatment such as the vibratory polishing process was used with different media to investigate the surface roughness parameters, arithmetic mean roughness (Ra) and the maximum depth of the roughness valley (Rv) of AlSi12 produced by the powder bed fusion technique. Two measuring instruments; Gwyddion and Stylus Profilometer were used for the collection of data. The analysis of the results demonstrated that the measurements taken from the experimental setup using the stylus profilometer are complementary with those taken from the computational using the Gwyddion software. The findings suggested that the vibratory polishing technique significantly reduced the surface roughness of additively manufactured AlSi12. This study provides insights into ensuring the performance and reliability of component surface properties for applications in the transport industry.
An experimental investigation of selective laser process parameters on aluminium alloy (AlSi12)
(2023-07) Nzengue, AGB; Mpofu, K; Mathe, Ntombizodwa R; Daniyan, I; Muvunzi, Ra
The chase for sustainable manufacturing that contributes to addressing climate change is of research interest across scientists and industrial sectors. The lightweight and high strength properties of aluminium alloys foster sustainable cost, energy consumption and environmental friendliness. This has made aluminium alloys such AlSi12 to be adopted in the transport industry. However, there are difficulties associated with the material when processing with subtractive manufacturing systems. To hardness the benefits of AlSi12, researchers advocate the use of Additive Manufacturing (AM) technologies. One of the AM technology considered in this paper is the Selecting Laser Melting (SLM). SLM is a technique that presents advantages and disadvantages. One of the advantages of the process is the freedom of design complexity. The disadvantage is related to the process that influence the built part. The rapid cooling and heating motion of the interaction between the laser and the powder impact the structure of the printed part. Considering that the SLM process involves a range of process parameters that affect the printed part, this paper employs the Response Surface Methodology to vary the laser power from 50-300 W and the scanning speed from 500-2500 mm/s during the SLM of AlSi12. The result yielded the significant impact of low scanning speed on a printed specimen. Further studies entail conducting parametric optimisation and evaluation of the mechanical properties.
Fabrication and hardness behaviour of high entropy alloys
(Springer International Publishing, 2020-02) Dada, M; Popoola, P; Mathe, Ntombizodwa R; Pityana, Sisa L; Adeosun, A; Lengopeng, Thabo
Laser additive manufacturing is a direct energy deposition process which manufactures components from 3D model data in progressive layers until a whole part is built as opposed subtractive manufacturing. However, during the procedure, the deposits are subjected to rapid thermal stresses which adversely impact the integrity of the built component. High entropy alloys are materials with complex compositions of multiple elements. Traditionally, these alloys are fabricated using casting and other machining processes, with a recent interest in the use of laser deposition as a possible manufacturing process. To optimize process parameters of high entropy alloys melted on a steel plate, the influence of preheating temperature on the overall quality, microstructure and hardness behaviour of the alloys for aerospace applications were investigated. In this research, 9 samples of AlCoCrFeNiCu and AlTiCrFeCoNi high entropy alloys were fabricated using different laser parameters. The phases, chemical composition, micro-hardness and structural morphologies were characterized with XRD, EDS, Vickers Microhardness tester and SEM respectively before and after preheating the base plates at 400 °C. Experimental results show extensive cracking on all the samples without preheating while after preheating all samples were observed to be crack-free. Although, there were no variations on the dendritic structures in the optical micrographs with and without preheating temperature, there were notable changes in the phases and hardness behaviour of the alloys showing that preheating the base plate from 400 °C significantly influences the mechanical properties of additive manufactured high entropy alloys and contributes to the elimination of cracks induced by thermal stresses.
High entropy alloys for aerospace applications
(2019-09) Dada, M; Popoola, P; Adeosun, S; Mathe, Ntombizodwa R
In the aerospace industry, materials used as modern engine components must be able to withstand extreme operating temperatures, creep, fatigue crack growth and translational movements of parts at high speed. Therefore, the parts produced must be lightweight and have good elevated-temperature strength, fatigue, resistant to chemical degradation, wear and oxidation resistance. High entropy alloys (HEAs) characterize the cutting edge of high-performance materials. These alloys are materials with complex compositions of multiple elements and striking characteristics in contrast to conventional alloys; their high configuration entropy mixing is more stable at elevated temperatures. This attribute allows suitable alloying elements to increase the properties of the materials based on four core effects , which gives tremendous possibilities as potential structural materials in jet engine applications. Researchers fabricate most of these materials using formative manufacturing technologies; arc melting. However, the challenges of heating the elements together have the tendency to form hypoeutectic that separates itself from the rest of the elements and defects reported are introduced during the casting process. Nevertheless, Laser Engineering Net Shaping (LENS™) and Selective Laser Melting (SLM); a powderbased laser additive manufacturing process offers versatility, accuracy in geometry and fabrication of three-dimensional dense structures layer by layer avoiding production errors.
High entropy alloys for aerospace applications
(IntechOpen, 2019-09) Dada, M; Popoola, P; Adeosun, S; Mathe, Ntombizodwa R
In the aerospace industry, materials used as modern engine components must be able to withstand extreme operating temperatures, creep, fatigue crack growth and translational movements of parts at high speed. Therefore, the parts produced must be lightweight and have good elevated-temperature strength, fatigue, resistant to chemical degradation, wear and oxidation resistance. High entropy alloys (HEAs) characterize the cutting edge of high-performance materials. These alloys are materials with complex compositions of multiple elements and striking characteristics in contrast to conventional alloys; their high configuration entropy mixing is more stable at elevated temperatures. This attribute allows suitable alloying elements to increase the properties of the materials based on four core effects , which gives tremendous possibilities as potential structural materials in jet engine applications. Researchers fabricate most of these materials using formative manufacturing technologies; arc melting. However, the challenges of heating the elements together have the tendency to form hypoeutectic that separates itself from the rest of the elements and defects reported are introduced during the casting process. Nevertheless, Laser Engineering Net Shaping (LENS™) and Selective Laser Melting (SLM); a powderbased laser additive manufacturing process offers versatility, accuracy in geometry and fabrication of three-dimensional dense structures layer by layer avoiding production errors.

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